The term "Khmers Rouges", French for “Red Khmer", was coined by Prince Norodom Sihanouk in the late 1950s to describe Cambodians who were attracted to communist politics.1 Although the Cambodian communists never used this term themselves, the name stuck.2
The rise of the Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK)
The Indochinese Communist Party (ICP) is founded by Ho Chi Minh. The Party is based on the international communist movement and is initially dominated by Vietnamese members. It will later include Cambodian and Laotian members .
The ICP emphasizes the need for unity among the three peoples to overthrow French colonial authorities in Indochina.3
France is defeated in Europe during World War II and its influence in Indochina is considerably diminished.
Japanese forces briefly overthrow French control.
The young King Norodom Sihanouk proclaims the independent Kingdom of Kampuchea, but the country is soon reintegrated as a French protectorate following Japanese surrender to Allied Forces.
Resistance movements in Vietnam and Laos proclaim their countries' independence from France.
War breaks out in Vietnam between pro-independence communist forces (“Viet Minh”) and France in December.
This conflict spreads guerrilla warfare against the French administration throughout neighbouring Cambodia and Laos.
On 17 April 1950, exactly 25 years before the Khmer Rouge march on Phnom Penh, Khmer resistance units mobilize alongside Viet Minh forces into a loose “United Issarak Front”. The Front is headed by the Cambodian communist politician Son Ngoc Minh but remains dominated by Viet Minh personnel.4
The ICP reorganizes itself and establishes national branches in Cambodia, Vietnam, and Laos.
The Cambodian party is named the “Khmer People’s Revolutionary Party” (KPRP). It retains many elements of the old ICP.5
Prolonged French administration and Issarak insurgency in the countryside fuel calls for Cambodia’s independence from foreign influence. King Norodom Sihanouk successfully leads his “Royal Crusade for Independence” which culminates in the successful transfer of colonial authority in late 1953.6
Cambodia achieves independence
on 9 November 1953.
The Geneva Accords are signed, formally ending hostilities across the region.
Issarak units, including Viet Minh soldiers, are forced to withdraw from Cambodian territory. The KPRP leadership retreats to Vietnam, nearly causing the Party to dissolve. Nevertheless, some KPRP members remain in Cambodia, embittered by the refusal of the Vietnamese communists and major powers to negotiate a political role for them in Cambodia.7
The KPRP founds its political arm, Krom Pracheachon (the People’s Group), to serve as the public face of the revolutionary movement in Cambodia. Krom Pracheachon’s members are referred to as the “Khmers Rouges”.
They are defeated in national elections by Sangkum Reastr Niyum (People’s Socialist Community) and are subjected to police and military harassment.
Behind the scenes, the KPRP reorganizes itself under a five-man Central Committee supported by Saloth Sar (Pol Pot) and Nuon Chea.8
The first congress of the Cambodian communist movement secretly convenes in Phnom Penh in September 1960.
Its members decide to rename the KPRP the “Workers’ Party of Kampuchea”. They agree to pursue a policy of independence, sovereignty, self-reliance, and armed violence to overthrow their enemies.9
Workers Party
of Kampuchea (WPK)
after the first party congress.
standing committee
TOU Samouth
Secretary
NUON Chea
Deputy secretary
POL Pot
Member
IENG Sary
SON Sen
SAO Phim
central committee
KEO Meas
Member
IENG Sary
Member
SON Sen
Member
The second Party Congress names Saloth Sar (Pol Pot) as secretary and Nuon Chea as deputy secretary in February 1963.
Earlier leaders of the movement either went abroad, defected, or disappeared.10 Pol Pot remains the leader of the Cambodian communists until shortly before his death in 1998 while Nuon Chea serves as second-in-charge until the movement’s collapse in 1999.
Communist Party
of Kampuchea (CPK)
after the second party congress.
standing committee
POL Pot
Secretary
NUON Chea
Deputy secretary
SAO Phim
Member
IENG Sary
Member
SON Sen
Member
TA Mok
Member
VORN Vet
Member
central committee
KEO Meas
Member
RUOS Nhim
Member
NEY Sarann
Member
KHIEU Samphan
Member
CHHIM Sam Aok
Member
EK Sophon
Member
KOY Thuon
Member
CHOU Chet
Member
KE Pauk
Member
The Party renames itself the “Communist Party of Kampuchea” (CPK).
It prepares for armed struggle to achieve socialism in Cambodia in response to ongoing attacks on the political left. Neither the Party’s name nor its existence is made public for another 11 years.11
The Guerrilla Years
The CPK uses popular uprisings in Samlaut and Bay Damram (Battambang) to mark the beginning of the Pary’s armed struggle and creation of the Revolutionary Army of Kampuchea (RAK). The movement gains momentum.12
US military bombing campaigns against Vietnamese communists push Viet Minh guerrillas further into Cambodian territory.13
North vietnamese army (nva)
Khmer Rouge
Khmer republic
The presence of more than 20,000 Vietnamese troops in Cambodia stirs public discontent.14
MARCH
Prime Minister Lon Nol overthrows the administration of Norodom Sihanouk in a coup d’état, ending the Sangkum Reastr Niyum era and leading to the establishment of the Khmer Republic.
The Khmer Republic allies itself with the US-supported South Vietnamese regime and demands the withdrawal of all (North) Vietnamese communist troops.
Norodom Sihanouk founds the National United Front of Kampuchea (“FUNK”) from abroad and aligns himself with Cambodian leftists.15
May
As the dominant resistance movement in Cambodia, the CPK moves against the new republic under the banner of Norodom Sihanouk’s government-in-exile.16
Royal Government of the National Union of Kampuchea ("GRUNK")
*The Royal Government of the National Union of Kampuchea ("GRUNK") was formed by NORODOM Sihanouk in 1970 as a government in exile. GRUNK consisted of an alliance between NORODOM Sihanouk and communist politicians, most of whom were secretly members of the CPK. It was not long before the CPK controlled GRUNK. GRUNK members who were not part of the CPK are identified here with an asterisk.
NORODOM Sihanouk*
Head of State
PENN Nouth*
Prime Minister
KHIEU Samphan
Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of National Defence and CPNLAF Commander in Chief
SARIN Chhak
Minister of Foreign Affairs (based in Beijing)
HU Nim
Minister of Information and Propaganda
HOU Youn
Minister of Interior, Communal Reforms and Cooperatives
CHOU Chet
Vice-Minister of Public Health and Religious and Social Affairs
KOY Thuon
Vice-Minister of Economy and Finance
IENG Thirith
Vice-Minister for People's Education and Youth
The CPK mobilizes its forces across the country to “liberate” areas from Khmer Republic control; they start to close markets and discontinue currency in these regions, forcibly displace people from urban centres and transfer them to collective farms.
The Khmer Rouge begin to openly target their enemies, including people suspected of supporting the Khmer Republic, ordinary peasants, and minorities.17
JUNE
CPK forces occupy or control nearly one-fifth of Cambodia’s territory.18 At the same time, Vietnamese communists occupy large swathes of Cambodian territory in the east of the country including most of Ratanakiri and Mondulkiri, parts of Stung Treng, and parts of Kampot and Kampong Cham to within 25km of Phnom Penh.19 By now, the Khmer Rouge have started to implement collectivization. In Tram Kak district for example, the CPK has organised villagers into “solidarity” groups to harvest rice and increase agricultural production.20
North vietnamese army (nva)
Khmer Rouge
Khmer republic
The third Party Congress convenes in September 1971
resolving that Vietnam is the long-term “acute enemy”
of Kampuchea but that the CPK remains ill-equipped to confront the Vietnamese threat directly. This decision represents a major policy shift because the CPK Central Committee had earlier adopted good relations with the Vietnamese communists, probably due to Vietnamese assurances that they would withdraw their forces from Khmer Rouge occupied areas as soon as Vietnamese troops could be replaced by Cambodians. Khieu Samphan is appointed to the CPK Central Committee.21
may
Khmer Rouge forces fighting under the banner of the Cambodian People’s National Liberation Armed Forces (“CPNLAF”) surpass the Khmer Republic as the dominant military force in Cambodia.
Markets in Khmer Rouge controlled areas are closed and currency is abolished.22
North vietnamese army (nva)
Khmer Rouge
Khmer republic
january
The Paris Peace Accords remove the US from the Vietnamese conflict and require the withdrawal of Vietnamese forces from Cambodian territory. North Vietnam ceases providing military supplies to the CPK, which worsens the relationship that had been deteriorating for over a decade.23
MARCH - APRIL
As head of the Royal Government of the National Union of Kampuchea (GRUNK). Norodom Sihanouk makes a tour of the “liberated zones” in Cambodia.
MAY - AUGUST
Vietnamese military forces have demobilized in Cambodia and the last vestiges of Vietnamese command over Cambodian forces have dissipated. Some North Vietnamese soldiers remain to guard the flow of Chinese weapons down the Ho Chi Minh Trail.24 With the Vietnamese largely out of the way, the CPK turn their focus to defeating remaining Khmer Republic strongholds.25
Years of US bombing raids have caused tens of thousands of civilian deaths, destroyed crops, and ruined agricultural infrastructure.
CPK forces use the devastation and humanitarian crisis to recruit disaffected Cambodians to their armed struggle against the US-backed Khmer Republic.26
Sites bombed
As they sweep through the country in 1973, the Khmer Rouge empty Kratie, Banam and Kampong Cham towns of their civilian populations.27
Urban expulsions continue as the CPK disperses approximately 15,000 to 20,000 people from Oudong.
MARCH
People are resettled in rural cooperatives and are forced to farm collectively. Within the next year, the populations of Prey Veng, Svay Rieng, Kampot, and Kampong Thom are forcibly resettled around the country.28
POPULATION DISPLACEMENTS
administrative zones
June
The CPK Central Committee convenes to settle plans for the final assault, “liberation” and “evacuation” of Phnom Penh and other urban centres.
A final assault on Phnom Penh is planned for the dry season of 1974-1975.29 With a tenuous hold on its own territory, the Khmer Republic’s days are numbered…
JANuary - APRIL
CPK forces advance upon Phnom Penh in their final assault on the capital.30 They mine the Mekong River along the way and attack US aid supply transports to Khmer Republic areas using mortars and rockets. The CPK repeatedly calls for the execution of the Khmer Republic’s leadership. Khieu Samphan, deputy prime minister of the Royal Government in exile, echoes these calls publicly.31
1-16 APRIL
In early April, senior CPK leaders including Pol Pot, Khieu Samphan, Nuon Chea, Ieng Sary and zone secretaries meet in Kampong Chhnang to finalize the capture of Phnom Penh. At the same time, Khmer Rouge divisions from the North Zone, Southwest Zone, East Zone, and Special Zone converge upon and encircled the capital.32
Khmer Rouge
Khmer republic